Constantinople The Forgotten Empire
The Forgotten Empire of Constantinople, a resilient city on a vital strait, endured a thousand years of relentless external and internal struggles before its final fall.
Isaac Asimov, in "Constantinople: The Forgotten Empire," invites us to explore a civilization that endured for a remarkable span of time, often overlooked in the shadow of its Roman predecessor and Western European successors. Like his other historical explorations, such as those into The Greeks or The Dark Ages, Asimov approaches this history with a clear, logical eye and a simple, engaging style, making complex events readily understandable. The book centers on the city of Constantinople itself, a settlement strategically perched on a strait that connects the Black Sea and the Mediterranean. This location, initially a small way station called Byzantium, made it a vital crossroads for trade and a tempting prize for various powers.
The city's importance was evident early on. Athens, a city dependent on overseas imports for food, desperately needed control of Byzantium and the straits to safeguard its lifeline. The struggle for dominance over this critical location played out in ancient times, notably when Athens fought for control and later lost it to Sparta after a devastating naval defeat. Even powerful figures like Philip of Macedon recognised the strategic value of Byzantium, understanding that its capture could cut off the Athenian lifeline. Byzantium's successful resistance against Philip, credited in part to the light of their patron goddess Hecate, was a moment of great exhilaration for the city.
However, its strategic position also exposed it to immense danger. The sources reveal a history punctuated by sieges, conflicts, and internal strife. Following a devastating siege by Septimius Severus in 196, Byzantium was sacked, its walls destroyed, and reduced in status. Though later rebuilt somewhat, it would not truly recover for a long time. Its true transformation came when the Roman Empire's center of gravity shifted eastward. The empire was divided into eastern and western halves, and Constantinople emerged as the capital of the East. This Eastern Roman, or Byzantine, Empire faced relentless pressure from various groups, referred to in the sources as "new barbarians".
The challenge for the emperors in Constantinople was constant: how to defend a vast, multifaceted empire against numerous, often simultaneous, threats? The sources highlight various strategies and the figures who attempted to implement them. We see internal power struggles, such as the conflicts between different factions within the court and army. Religious disputes also played a significant role, sometimes dividing the empire and complicating political and military efforts. The difficulty of finding reliable and capable leaders was a recurring theme.
The sources introduce us to a gallery of fascinating characters. We encounter figures like Eutropius, a eunuch who served as chief minister. We learn about Empress Eudoxia's involvement in church politics, leading to the exile and recall of Patriarch John Chrysostom. Later, we meet Empress Theodora, depicted by the historian Procopius with scandalous details in his secret writings, who played a significant role alongside Emperor Justinian. Justinian himself, who reigned for many years, is presented as a complex figure who pursued a "western strategy" aiming to recover lost territories. His reliance on generals like Belisarius and the eunuch Narses is explored, as are his suspicions and reluctance to fully support them, perhaps stemming from concerns about their potential ambition. The unique qualities of Narses, whose status as a eunuch meant he could not aspire to the imperial throne, made him an object of absolute trust for Justinian.
The empire's military struggles are vividly described. The Byzantine army was not vast but relied on highly trained professional soldiers, such as the cataphracts, who were conserved carefully. Military strategy often aimed to avoid large-scale battles where heavy losses could occur. The effective defense of Constantinople itself rested heavily on its formidable triple walls, constructed over decades, featuring a wide moat and multiple layers designed to break attacking forces. These walls proved resilient against numerous sieges over centuries, becoming a symbol of the city's strength.
External threats were diverse and persistent. The sources mention struggles against the Vandals, the Huns under Attila, the Germans, the Persians, and later the Arabs and Bulgarians. Each conflict brought new challenges and forced the empire to adapt. The rise of Islam presented a particularly formidable threat, leading to systematic absorption of territory and massive sieges of Constantinople. The successful defense against one such siege, partly due to the use of Greek fire and strong leadership, is highlighted as a crucial moment.
Internal tensions also continued. The conflict between the military and civilian parties for influence and control of the throne is a recurring theme. Emperors like Leo I tried to counter the power of German mercenaries by establishing Isaurian guards, only for these to become powerful in turn. The Byzantine court was often a place of intrigue and shifting alliances. The concept of the emperor's authority, while theoretically immense and even possessing an "aura of godship," did not prevent conspiracies, overthrow, or brutal treatment.
Despite the constant pressures, the empire experienced periods of recovery and even expansion. The reign of Basil I marked the beginning of the Macedonian dynasty, under which Byzantine recovery continued. His grandson, Basil II, is presented as a strong leader who eventually asserted his authority and undertook the significant task of ending the Bulgarian menace. His methods, including the mass blinding of prisoners, were brutal but effective in breaking Bulgarian resistance.
The relationship with the West also evolved, becoming increasingly complex and sometimes adversarial. The sources mention the final schism between Eastern and Western Christianity, although some contemporaries, like Michael Psellus, seemed to view it as just another dispute. Interactions with Western powers, including the Franks and later the Normans and Crusaders, added new layers of challenge. Alexius I, facing numerous threats, sought help from the West, which led to the arrival of the Crusaders, a move that brought its own set of complications and mutual suspicion.
The sources also touch upon the cultural and intellectual life of the empire. Figures like Photius, the patriarch and scholar, whose collection of extracts from ancient Greek literature is immensely valuable because many originals are lost, are mentioned. The revision of the law code, begun under Basil I and completed under Leo VI, is highlighted as a work of incredible detail. The writing of history was important, though sometimes complicated by personal bias or the need for secrecy, as seen with Procopius. Later figures like John Italus engaged in philosophical debates, sometimes drawing the ire of the Church. The eleventh and twelfth centuries saw notable literary figures, including Anna Comnena, the daughter of Alexius I, whose historical work "The Alexiad" provides a valuable Eastern perspective on the Crusaders. Even in its final centuries, the empire experienced a kind of renaissance in art, literature, and philosophy, contributing to the rising humanism in the West through scholars and manuscripts brought to Italy.
Ultimately, Asimov's narrative, as glimpsed through these excerpts, is a testament to the enduring struggle of this "forgotten empire". It is a story of a city and a civilization that, despite internal weaknesses, constant external pressures, and moments of near-total collapse, repeatedly found ways to survive, adapt, and even flourish for a thousand years. The resilience of Constantinople, the strategic importance of its location, the complex interplay of personalities and policies, and the sheer persistence of the Byzantine people in the face of overwhelming odds are central themes. The book paints a picture of a long, hard-fought existence, a drama played out on a grand stage against a backdrop of shifting empires and cultures, illustrating that survival itself can be a profound historical achievement.
