The Dark Ages
The story chronicles Western Rome's fall, Germanic invasions, new kingdoms, Frankish ascent, fragmentation, and external threats. It details an era of darkness and transition, yet shows the foundation being laid for a new Western Europe.
The chronicle before us embarks upon a sweeping journey through a millennium of transition, focusing on a period often referred to as the Dark Ages. It begins by setting the stage with the dimly perceived interaction between the civilized Roman world to the south and the barbarian tribes to the north. Initially, knowledge of each other was limited, stemming perhaps from trade routes like the amber trade. However, this detached awareness was soon to be replaced by a much more direct, and often brutal, form of acquaintance as Germanic tribes began to press against Roman borders.
The narrative highlights key moments of early conflict, such as the encounters with groups like the Cimbri and Teutones, noting that while these tribes may not have been entirely German, their actions certainly impressed the reality of the northern barbarians upon the Romans. It recounts the Germans' ability to recover and find leaders, such as Arminius, who achieved significant victories against Roman legions, demonstrating a resilience that prevented their easy absorption into the Roman Empire like Gaul. Even after setbacks, like the defeat by Julian near Strasbourg, the German peoples remained vigilant, constantly watching for Roman weakness. The account notes that our primary source for understanding the Germans of this early period is the Roman historian Tacitus, though it cautions that his view was perhaps colored by his own criticisms of Roman society, presenting the Germans as 'noble savages'.
As the narrative unfolds, the pressure on the Roman Empire intensifies. External forces, particularly from Asia, a vast reservoir of population, began to push westward. The Huns, a group of nomadic herdsmen, are presented as a major catalyst for the large-scale movements of the Germanic tribes. The Ostrogoths and Visigoths, having experienced Hunnish pressure, sought entry into the Roman Empire. The sources describe the complexities of this influx, including incidents like the disastrous Battle of Adrianople where the Romans were defeated by the Visigoths. Crucially, the account shows how Germans began to serve in the Roman army, eventually rising to positions of command, becoming virtual overlords in parts of the Empire.
The "story" then focuses on the fragmentation of the Western Roman Empire and the establishment of Germanic kingdoms within its former territories. Figures like Alaric the Visigoth, who notably occupied Rome, and Theodoric the Ostrogoth, who established a period of stable rule in Italy, are presented as central to this process. The complexity of these new entities is underscored by the challenge of ruling diverse populations, leading to efforts to codify laws, like the Visigothic code published under Euric. A significant theme emerging is the religious division between the overwhelmingly Catholic Roman population and many of the Germanic rulers who adhered to Arian Christianity. This religious difference is portrayed as a major barrier to assimilation.
Amidst this backdrop of shifting power, the Frankish kingdom emerges as a dominant force. The narrative traces their journey from being Roman allies to expanding their own power, notably under Clovis. Clovis's conversion to Catholicism is highlighted as a pivotal strategic move, allowing him to frame wars against Arian kingdoms, like the Visigoths in Gaul, as religious crusades, which helped consolidate his power and distinguish the Franks. The account follows the Frankish realm through the decline of the Merovingian dynasty, where actual power increasingly resided with officials known as the mayors of the palace, while the kings became mere figureheads.
The narrative then pivots to the rise of the Carolingian dynasty, initially through the power wielded by mayors like Charles Martel. Charles Martel's significance is underscored by his role in confronting the expanding forces of Islam, which had conquered Visigothic Spain and were pressing northward. His son, Pepin the Short, is shown navigating the political landscape to secure the title of king, ultimately relying on papal support to legitimize the shift from Merovingian rule. This event is presented as a crucial turning point, solidifying the alliance between the Frankish monarchy and the Papacy. Pepin's campaigns against the Lombards in Italy further demonstrate the growing power and reach of the Frankish kingdom and its commitment to supporting the Pope, laying the groundwork for the Papal States.
The story culminates in the reign of Charlemagne, presented as a period of significant consolidation and expansion for the Frankish realm, leading to a brief resurgence of imperial authority in the West. Charlemagne's vast conquests, including the defeat of the Lombards and campaigns against the Saxons, are detailed, noting the brutal nature of some of these conflicts. His relationship with the Papacy, leading to his coronation as Emperor, is explored, highlighting the complex dynamic between secular and religious authority. The account also touches upon Charlemagne's efforts to revive learning and literacy, the so-called Carolingian Renaissance, emphasizing the importance of figures like Alcuin and innovations like the Carolingian minuscule as glimpses of light in the prevailing darkness.
Following Charlemagne's death, the narrative describes the predictable decline and fragmentation of the Carolingian Empire, plagued by internal divisions among his successors and renewed external invasions by Vikings and Magyars. The weakening of central authority leads to the rise of powerful regional dukes and counts, illustrating the shifting power dynamics that characterize the end of this period. The final stages show the emergence of new ruling houses, such as the Capetians in the West Frankish realm, marking the end of Carolingian rule in many areas. Throughout this period, the narrative intersperses anecdotes, such as the tale of Wamba or the legend of Pope Joan, often noting their questionable historical accuracy while illustrating the nature of the sources available from the time. Legends surrounding Charlemagne and his paladins, like Roland, are also discussed, highlighting how historical events were transformed into popular myths.
Overall, the chronicle effectively presents the period as one of profound transformation, moving from the decline of a unified Roman state in the West to a new political map dominated by Germanic kingdoms, which themselves undergo significant changes and face continuous challenges. It emphasizes the interplay of military conquest, political maneuvering, religious dynamics, and the slow, often halting, efforts to preserve and revive learning. The style is clear and accessible, characteristic of Asimov's approach to historical writing, focusing on the key players and major trends in a logical, storytelling fashion while acknowledging the limitations and biases of the historical sources. The story builds from the pressure on Roman borders and leads towards the eventual fragmentation and feudalisation of Europe, setting the stage for later developments, while acknowledging the persistence of fundamental populations beneath the changing aristocratic layers. It portrays a time marked by instability and violence, but also by the foundations being laid for the future political and cultural landscape of Western Europe.
